Energy

S 1-218. General note.

Energy to meet the expanding power needs of our economy has been secured from various animate and inanimate sources. Among those of historical significance, whose use is generally within the control of mankind, are human and animal power; waterpower; windpower; wood and other vegetable matter used as fuel; coal; oil; and natural gas; and, since 1957, atomic energy. Currently, efforts are being made to develop and control solar energy, internal heat of the earth, and, through chemical processing, certain additional natural resources such as shale and sea water. For those interested in developing a comprehensive understanding of power problems the following books are suggested: Eugene Ayers and Charles A. Scarlott, Energy Sources-The Wealth of the World, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1952; P. C. Putnam, Energy in the Future, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1953; Fred Cottrell, Energy and Society, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1955; J. F. Dewhurst and Associates, America's Needs and Resources, A New Survey, The Twentieth Century Fund, New York, 1955; Ali Bulet Cambel, editor, Energy R&D and National Progress, Government Printing Office, 1964; Hans H. Landsberg and Sam H. Schurr, Energy in the United States, Sources, Uses, and Policy Issues, Random House, New York, 1968; Warren E. Morrison and Charles L. Readling, Energy Model for the United States, Energy Balances for the Years 1947-1965, and Projections and Forecasts, U.S. Bureau of Mines Information Circular 8384, 1968; N. B. Guyol, The World Electric Power Industry, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1969; M. King Hubbert, "Energy Resources," in Resources and Man, W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, 1969; U.S. Congress, Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Environmental Effects of Producing Electric Power, selected materials and hearings issued in 4 vols., 1969 and 1970; U.S. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, hearings of the Subcommittee on Anti-Trust & Monopoly, Competitive Aspects of the Energy Industry, parts 1 and 2, 1970; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1967 Census of Manufactures-Fuels and Electric Energy Consumed, Report MC 67(S)4, Government Printing Office, 1971; Joel Darmstadter with Perry D. Teitelbaum and J. G. Polach, for Resources for the Future, Inc., Energy in the World Economy: A Statistical Review of Trends in Output, Trade, and Consumption Since 1925, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1971; National Petroleum Council, U.S. Energy Outlook—An Initial Appraisal (1971-1985), Washington, D.C., 1971; Resources for the Future, Inc., in cooperation with M.I.T. Environmental Laboratory, Energy Research Needs, a report to the National Science Foundation, document No. PB 207-516, National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va., 1971; U.S. Federal Power Commission, The 1970 National Power Survey, issued in 4 parts, 1971 and 1972; Walter G. Dupree, Jr., and James A. West, United States Energy Through the Year 2000, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1972; Edison Electric Institute, Statistical Yearbook of the Electric Utility Industry, New York, annual; U.S. Federal Power Commission, World Power Data, annual; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vols. I-II combined, Metals, Minerals, and Fuels, annual; United Nations Statistical Office, World Energy Supplies, Statistical Papers, Series J, New York, annual; U.S. Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, A National Fuels and Energy Policy Study, Pursuant to Senate Resolution 45, 19721974; Federal Power Commission, Natural Gas Survey, forthcoming. Preparation of historical tables showing energy from various sources and total energy input on a per capita or other basis is complicated. The amounts shown will differ greatly depending on the

basis and point of measurement used. End-use data, for example, will show far larger increases in total per capita over the last 100 years than will data presenting physical measures such as tons, gallons, cubic feet, or B.t.u.'s because of increased efficiency in conversion and utilization.

Data on energy available from mineral fuels, waterpower for electric energy, and fuel wood are shown in series M 76-92. For total waterpower, net imports from waterpower sources in Canada and the energy equivalent of waterpower not converted to electric energy (direct drive from water wheels) must also be considered. Statistics available for power sources not included here are presented in some of the sources cited above. Data on the development and use of energy for power and related purposes are compiled or summarized and published by: Federal agencies such as the Bureau of Mines, Bureau of the Census, Rural Electrification Administration, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Federal Power Commission, Federal Reserve Board, Interstate Commerce Commission; the various trade associations such as the Edison Electric Institute, American Gas Association, Bituminous Coal Institute, American Petroleum Institute; and various technical journals, particularly in their statistical issues.

S 1-14. Total horsepower of all prime movers, 1849-1970.

Source: 1849-1952, J. F. Dewhurst and Associates, America's Needs and Resources, A New Survey, 1955 by The Twentieth Century Fund, New York, p. 1117; 1955, estimates prepared by John A. Waring for Transactions of Canadian Sectional Meeting, World Power Conference, 1958; 1960-1970, unpublished estimates from John A. Waring.

Data for 1849-1952 for series S 4 (work animals), S 10 (sailing vessels), and S 12 (windmills), as shown on p. 1117 of America's Needs and Resources, are based on data presented in appendix 25-3 of that volume. All other data for 1849-1919 are from C. R. Daugherty, A. H. Horton, and R. W. Davenport, Power Capacity and Production in the United States, Water Supply Paper No. 579, U.S. Geological Survey, 1928. The original data from Daugherty et al. were for 1849 and subsequent 10-year intervals through 1919. Estimates for 1850 and subsequent 10-year intervals through 1940 are based on straight-line interpolation of original data.

All data for 1929, 1939, 1950, and 1952 shown in Dewhurst were prepared by John A. Waring. According to Waring, estimates for 1952 as shown in Dewhurst are too low for mines and farms, and too high for railroad locomotives.

A technical and statistical bibliography of early data pertaining to the development of horsepower equipment in the United States appears on pp. 43 and 44 of Daugherty et al. This source also contains a section on the sources and accuracy of the data. The following appraisal of the data appears on p. 21: "In general the accuracy of the statistics presented . . . increases with each successive decade. The data for the early years are almost wholly estimated, but it is believed that the estimates are supported by bases accurate enough to lend a degree of authenticity to them."

In addition to the classifications shown in series S 1-14, the installed mechanical horsepower in a number of special industries was also calculated for 1960 by Waring, as follows (in thousands): Municipal waterworks pumping engines, 2,188; gas utility stations, 1,775; natural gas pipeline pumping stations, 6,110; underground gas storage pool compressor engines, 470; petroleum pipeline pumping stations, 4,560; standby communications generator sets, 632; isolated nonindustrial generator sets, 5,204; construction and contractors' building

equipment, 89,182; inboard powered motor boats and yachts, 29,870; outboard powered motor boats, 60,500; portable chain saws, 2,020; and power lawn mowers, 36,800. These total 239,311 thousand horsepower, which, when added to the 1960 total of 11,007,889 thousand shown in series S 1, result in an aggregate of 11,247,200 thousand horsepower.

S 15-24. Consumption of raw materials in constant 1967 dollars, by broad use classes, 1900-1969.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census and U.S. Bureau of Mines, Raw Materials in the United States Economy: 1900-1969 (Working Paper No. 35), table A5.

The raw-materials series presented in the source are regrouped in these series in terms of the major purposes for which the materials are used. This classification represents materials used in the entire U.S. economy, including the raw-materials industries.

Minerals usually used for energy purposes are increasingly being absorbed for nonfuel uses. Some such uses are for synthetic rubber, carbon black, and other chemical raw materials; for lubricants, asphalt, road oil, waxes; and as carbon in iron and electrodes. The approximate significance of such uses is indicated by the following figures:

The figures in series S 15-24 exclude such uses from the figures presented for "energy materials" and include them in "physicalstructure materials."

It should be noted that the relative importance of the foods, energy materials, and physical-structure materials segments of the consumption pattern is somewhat influenced by the consumption of raw materials within the raw-materials industries. The value of purchased feed for farm animals and seed are excluded here. However, the mineral fuels consumed in producing raw materials are included, as well as the indirect consumption of raw materials represented by the capital-goods requirements of the raw-materials industries. Available staff facilities did not permit extensive analysis of the magnitude of consumption of raw materials within the raw-materials industries. It appears, however, that 4 to 7 percent of all energy has been used in mineral-fuel production.

See also series K 392-406, L 56-71, and M 38-53 for raw material consumption by agricultural materials, forest products, and minerals, respectively.

S 25-31. Consumption of fuel resources, by major consumer group,

1947-1970.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook and Mineral Industry Surveys, annual issues.

Most of the uses in the residential and commercial classification have the common characteristic of contributing personal comfort: Lighting, heating, and cooling in homes, schools, theaters, offices, and stores; and the operation of dozens of other appliances from kitchen stoves to office equipment. The line between the two is particularly thin in the case of large apartment houses, which, for the purpose of most energy statistics, are classified as commercial. Industry comprises manufacturing and mining. The transportation category takes in both private vehicles operated by their owners and public transportation-long distance as well as short haul, passenger as well as freight, and water and air as well as land.

Miscellaneous is a "catch-all" category embracing such diverse uses and users as street lighting, the defense establishment, construc

tion activities, transportation activities other than those identifiable in published statistics, and agriculture, which includes all uses of energy in farming, etc.

S 32-175. General note.

Some data on the production and use of electric energy are available since the beginning of commercial production in 1882. Data for 1882-1920, however, are difficult to evaluate because of changing bases of measurement and variations in coverage of the various censuses or other surveys made during the period. The Bureau of the Census published the results of censuses of the electric light and power industries made at 5-year intervals for 1902-1937, and the reports of the census of manufactures and of mineral industries contain important data on industrial use and production of electric energy. The Geological Survey, the Electrical World (McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Inc., New York), and the National Electric Light Association also published considerable data applicable to the industry during this early period.

The chief gaps in the data for these years are in the production of electric energy by industrial establishments for their own use, and in the measurement of the sales by electric railroads and railways for public distribution. Early data on capacity must be converted from horsepower (hp.) to kilowatts (kw.) to be comparable; and capacity data in kilovolt-amperes (kv.-a.) were often tabulated as kw. without adjustment for the power factor. Data on generation were also often reported without allowance for the kilowatt-hours (kw.-hr.) used in production and, in many instances, where the prime mover was used both for direct drive and for electric generation, the kw.-hr. equivalent of power used directly was reported as generation. End uses were reported by appliances, as number of lamps, arc lights, or motors, rather than as kw.-hr. These variations in units of measurements, in classification, and in coverage often resulted in differences in estimated totals of as much as 20 to 25 percent. In presenting historical data on electric energy since 1902, efforts have been made to resolve such differences and place the data on a comparable basis.

Referring to various historical sources, one will note that data published in later years will frequently show material revisions to reflect changes in classification and coverage. In the utility series prior to 1945, for example, when a large generating plant was purchased from an industrial concern, the utility series would be adjusted to include the capacity and generation of this plant in prior years. Where such revisions have been made, the revised data are shown.

Since 1920, comprehensive statistics on capacity and generation of electric utilities for public use have been compiled and published by the Geological Survey for 1920–1936, and by the Federal Power Commission since 1936. Data on capacity and generation by nonutility establishments since 1939 have been compiled and published by the FPC. The Commission also published financial, operating, sales, and rate statistics for the electric utility industry. Data on customers, revenues, sales, and related matters since 1926 are published by the Edison Electric Institute and the McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., Inc., Electrical World.

During the years there has been a marked growth in the application of power from various fuels through electric energy produced not only in generating plants but by generators in mobile equipment of many types. Among these are power plants in ships, railroad locomotives, trailers, barges, trucks, tractors, buses, and in machines used in mining and heavy construction which produce electric energy for driving and operating the mobile unit and for other services related thereto, or to supplement generating plants for temporary periods. Also of interest are the electric generators for auxiliary purposes operated directly or indirectly by the prime movers in automobiles, airplanes, and other mobile engines or by independent power units in refrigerator cars and trailers and many other installations to furnish electric energy directly or to maintain the electric charge in batteries for use as required. The importance of these small generators is indicated by the fact that the 108 million motor vehicles registered